The Mongols and Prester John are two interesting aspects concerning the Crusades. Prester John, the mystical king from the east, first shows up in literary sources in an 1145 description by Hugh Bishop of Jabala told to Otto of Freising, a noted historian.[1] Hugh Bishop of Jabala was a diplomat from the Crusader States on a mission to the Latin West with the purpose of garnering more support for the Crusader States. Since, after the fall of Edessa in 1144 there was a growing concern over the vulnerability of the Crusader States.[2] Nor, does the tale of Prester John and crusading end there, as Prester John is continually associated with crusading including the fifth and seventh crusade. In a similar vein, the Mongols also purport an interesting role in the study of the crusades, with a crusade being declared against them in 1241, only to be transformed into potential allies of the Crusaders against Muslim forces in the Latin East from 1262 until the early 14th century.[3] But, what is particularly interesting concerning Prester John and the Mongols in connection to crusading, is the intersection between these two groups. Historians have argued that the 1141 victory of the Mongol Yeh-Lu Ta-Shish over the Seljuks near Samarkand was the basis for Hugh of Jabala’s story of Prester John. Similarly, they have argued that Jacques of Vitry’s claim that Prester John was wagging a war against Muslim forces during the fifth crusade, coincides with the 1218-1225 Mongolian campaign led by Ghengis Khan against the Khwarazm, a great muslim power in east Asia.[4] Also, when it was clear to medieval Europe that the mongols and Prester John were two separate entities, several medieval contemporary authors felt the need to explain Prester John's connection to the Mongols in a myriad of ways.
Historians , however, who support this model argue that the Mongols are not the sole basis for the Prester John myth. They point to the ancient and medevial texts about the east, the bible, eastern stories, as well as, other elements having an impact on the formation of the Prester John mythos.[5] Also,there are historians who seek other explanations outside the Mongol arguement for being the spark that ignited the Prester John mythos, such as Medieval Ethiopia.[6] But, despite this there is strength in the Mongol argument and clearly contemporary authors saw such a connection as well. Also, the study is valuable as it calls attention to the exploration of the birth and evolution of a myth, the anxieties and hopes of medieval Europe concerning the crusades, the medieval ideas about India and the far east during the crusades and finally the exploration of the Mongols’ relationship to this myth and whether they realized and exploited that connection.In a field in which the complexity of the subject matter is stressed, Prester John and the Mongols acts as a perfect facet to a greater understang of crusading and the themes it addresses.
The examples below will allow you to get a good grasp on the topic of Prester John and the Mongols, whether your intention is to teach the material or to learn something about this niche area in the field of crusading. Specifically, 1-7 contain examples of medieval portrayals of Prester John, while examples 8-12 give the necessary historic background for this topic.
2. 1165 Letter of Prester John. Zarncke Translation. Pages 41-45 in The Realm of Prester John by Robert Silverberg Published by Ohio University Press in 1972.
Brief Summary: Describes Prester John as the ruler of a vast Kingdom with immense riches, including a river full of e precious gems and supernatural elements, like a site that heals Christians from whatever disease plagues them.
3. John of Plano Carpini on Prester John
But he (Genghis) sent his other son with an army against the Indians, who also subdued India Minor. These Indians are the black Saracens, which are also called Ethiopians. But here the army marched forward to fight against Christians dwelling in India Major. Which the king of that country hearing (who is commonly called Presbyter John) gathered his soldiers together, and came forth against them. And making men’s images of copper, he set each of them upon a saddle on horseback, and put fire within them and placed a man with a pair of bellows on the horseback behind every image. And so many horses and images in such sort furnished, they marched to fight against the Mongols or Tartars. And coming near unto the place of the battle, they first of all sent those horses in order one after another. But the men that sat behind laid I wot not what upon the fire within the images, and blew strongly with their bellows. Whereupon it came to pass, that men and horses were burnt with wildfire, and the air was darkened with smoke. Then the Indians cast darts upon the Tartars, of whom many were wounded and slain. And so they expelled them out of their dominions with great confusion, neither did we hear, that they returned thither again.
4. Joinville on the Tartars sections 471-491 found on pages 261-267 in Chronicles of the Crusade translated by Caroline Smith. Published by Penguin in 2008.
Brief Summary: Describes the Mongols as former tributaries of Prester John who eventually killed and overthrew him. First account to mention said defeat.
5. Friar William on Prester John pages 107-109 in The Realm of Prester John by Robert Silverberg Published by Ohio University Press in 1972.
Brief Summary: The Mongols conquer and defeat Vut, brother and successor to Prester John.
6. Marco Polo on the Mongols (Tartars) and Prester John.
Chapter 44
Of the origin of the kingdom of the Tartars--of the quarter from whence they came--and of their former subjection to Un-khan, a prince of the north, called also Prester John.
The circumstances under which these Tartars first began to exercise dominion shall now be related. They dwelt in the northern countries of Jorza and Bargu, but without fixed habitations, that is, without towns or fortified places; where there were extensive plains, good pasture, large rivers, and plenty of water. They had no sovereign of their own, and were tributary to a powerful prince, who (as I have been informed) was named in their language, Un-khan, by some thought to have the same signification as Prester John in ours. To him these Tartars paid yearly the tenth part of the increase of their cattle. In time the tribe multiplied so exceedingly that Un-khan, that is to say, Prester John, becoming apprehensive of their strength, conceived the plan of separating them into different bodies, who should take up their abode in distinct tracts of country. With this view also, whenever the occasion presented itself, such as a rebellion in any of the provinces subject to him, he drafted three or four hundred of these people, to be employed on the service of quelling it, and thus their power was gradually diminished. He likewise despatched them on other expeditions, and sent among them some of his principal officers to see that his intentions were carried into effect. At length the Tartars, becoming sensible of the slavery to which he tried to reduce them, resolved to maintain a strict union amongst themselves, and seeing that he planned nothing short of their final ruin, they adopted the measure of leaving the places they then inhabited, and proceeded north across a wide desert, until they felt assured that the distance afforded them security, when they refused any longer to pay to Un-khan the accustomed tribute.
Chapter 45
Concerning Chingis-khan, first emperor of the Tartars, and his warfare with Un-khan, whom he overthrew, and of whose kingdom he possessed himself.
Sometime after the migration of the Tartars to this place, and about the year of our Lord 1162, they proceeded to elect for their king a man named Chingis-khan, one of approved integrity, great wisdom, commanding eloquence, and eminent for his valor. He began his reign with so much justice and moderation, that he was beloved and revered as their deity rather than their sovereign; and as the fame of his great and good qualities spread over that part of the world, all the Tartars, however dispersed, placed themselves under his command. Finding himself thus at the head of so many brave men, he became ambitious of emerging from the deserts and wildernesses by which he was surrounded, and gave them orders to equip themselves with bows, and other weapons they were expert at using from the habits of their pastoral life. He then made himself master of cities and provinces, and such was the effect produced by his character for justice and other virtues, that wherever he went, he found the people disposed to submit to him, and to esteem themselves happy when admitted to his protection and favor. In this manner he acquired the possession of about nine provinces. Nor is his success surprising, when we consider that at this period each town and district was either governed by the people themselves or had its petty king or lord; and as there was no general confederacy, it was impossible for them to resist, separately, so formidable a power. Upon the subjugation of these places, he appointed governors to them, who were so exemplary in their conduct that the inhabitants did not suffer either in their persons or their properties. He likewise adopted the policy of taking along with him, into other provinces, the principal people, on whom he bestowed allowances and gratuities. Seeing how prosperously his enterprises succeeded, he resolved on attempting still greater things. With this view he sent ambassadors to Prester John, charged with a specious message, which he knew at the same time would not be listened to by that prince, demanding his daughter in marriage. Upon receiving the application, the monarch indignantly exclaimed: "Whence arises this presumption in Chingis-khan, who, knowing himself to be my servant, dares to ask for the hand of my child? Depart instantly," he said, "and let him know from me, that upon the repetition of such a demand, I shall put him to an ignominious death." Enraged at this reply, Chingis-khan collected a very large army, at the head of which he entered the territory of Prester John, and encamping on a great plain called Tenduk, sent a message desiring him to defend himself. The latter advanced likewise to the plain with a vast army, and took his position at the distance of about ten miles from the other. In this conjuncture Chingis-khan commanded his astrologers and magicians to declare to him which of the two armies in the approaching conflict should obtain the victory. Upon this they took a green reed, and dividing it lengthways into two parts, they wrote upon one the name of their master, and upon the other the name of Un-khan. They then placed them on the ground, at some distance from each other, and gave notice to the king that during the time of their pronouncing their incantations, the two pieces of reed, through the power of their idols, would advance towards each other, and that the victory would fall to the lot of that monarch whose piece should be seen to mount upon the other. The whole army was assembled to be spectators of this ceremony, and whilst the astrologers were employed in reading their books of necromancy, they perceived the two pieces begin to move and to approach, and after a short time, the one inscribed with the name of Chingis-khan placed itself on top of its adversary. Upon witnessing this, the king and his band of Tartars marched with exultation to the attack of the army of Un-khan, broke through its ranks and entirely routed it. Un-khan himself was killed, his kingdom fell to the conqueror, and Chingis-khan espoused his daughter. After this battle he continued during six years to render himself master of additional kingdoms and cities; until at length, in the siege of a castle named Thaigin, he was struck by an arrow in the knee, died of the wound, and was buried in the mountain of Altai.
7. . Read pages 141-149 and 162, 167-171 in The Travels of Sir Mandeville, translated by C.S Mosley, published 2005 by Penguin.
Brief Summary: The first part covers the Mongols, while the second part covers Prester John. Prester John has a vast and rich Kingdom with mythical elements. But, he is still secondary to the Mongols in wealth and Power.
8. Read chapters 1-4 in The Realm of Prester John, by Robert Silverberg, published 1972 by Ohio University Press.
9. Read pages 31-40, 136-141 and chapters 1, 3-5 and 7 in Peter Jackson’s The Mongols and the West: 1221-1410. Published by Pearson Educated Limited, 2005.
10. Read pages 4-11, 25-52, 81-92 in Vsevolod Slessarev, Prester John: The Letter and the Legend (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1959)
10. Read Karl F. Helleiner, "Prester John's Letter: A Mediaeval Utopia," Phoenix 13, no. 2 (1959): 49. doi:10.2307/1086970.
12. Read Charles E. Nowell, "The Historical Prester John," Speculum 28, no. 3 (1953): 439-440. doi:10.2307/2847020.
Some important events to keep in mind, while reading examples 8-12.
1141: Yeh-Lu Ta-Shish defeats the Seljuks near Samarkand.
1144: Edessa falls to Zengi.
1145: The first appearance of Prester John in medieval literature.
1147-1149: The Second Crusade ends in failure.
1165: The Byzantine Emperor recieves a letter from someone claiming to be Prester John.
1177: Pope Alexander III sends a letter to Prester John.
1218-1225: Mongolian campaign against Khwarazm.
1221: Members of the fifth crusader hear rumors of Prester John attacking Muslims.
1241-1242: The Mongolian Invasion of Europe.
1245: First Council of Lyon.
1246: John of Plano Carpini attends coronation of Kuyuk as Khan.
1262: The start of Mongolian diplomacy with Catholic Europe.
1322: Mongolian diplomacy with Catholic Europe ends.
Exercises
[1] Vsevolod Slessarev, Prester John: The Letter and the Legend (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1959) 27.
[2] Ibid, 25-26.
[3] Peter Jackson, The Mongols and the West: 1221-1410 (New York: Pearson Educated Limited, 2005) 165.
[4] Charles E. Nowell, "The Historical Prester John," Speculum 28, no. 3 (1953): 439-440. doi:10.2307/2847020. Jackson, The Mongols and the West: 1221-1410, 37-39.
[5] Vsevolod Slessarev, Prester John: The Letter and the Legend, 28-30.
[6] Charles E. Nowell, "The Historical Prester John," 437.
Historians , however, who support this model argue that the Mongols are not the sole basis for the Prester John myth. They point to the ancient and medevial texts about the east, the bible, eastern stories, as well as, other elements having an impact on the formation of the Prester John mythos.[5] Also,there are historians who seek other explanations outside the Mongol arguement for being the spark that ignited the Prester John mythos, such as Medieval Ethiopia.[6] But, despite this there is strength in the Mongol argument and clearly contemporary authors saw such a connection as well. Also, the study is valuable as it calls attention to the exploration of the birth and evolution of a myth, the anxieties and hopes of medieval Europe concerning the crusades, the medieval ideas about India and the far east during the crusades and finally the exploration of the Mongols’ relationship to this myth and whether they realized and exploited that connection.In a field in which the complexity of the subject matter is stressed, Prester John and the Mongols acts as a perfect facet to a greater understang of crusading and the themes it addresses.
The examples below will allow you to get a good grasp on the topic of Prester John and the Mongols, whether your intention is to teach the material or to learn something about this niche area in the field of crusading. Specifically, 1-7 contain examples of medieval portrayals of Prester John, while examples 8-12 give the necessary historic background for this topic.
- Hugh Bishop of Jabala 1145 account of Prester John as recorded by Bishop Otto of Freising. Translated by Charles Mierow.
2. 1165 Letter of Prester John. Zarncke Translation. Pages 41-45 in The Realm of Prester John by Robert Silverberg Published by Ohio University Press in 1972.
Brief Summary: Describes Prester John as the ruler of a vast Kingdom with immense riches, including a river full of e precious gems and supernatural elements, like a site that heals Christians from whatever disease plagues them.
3. John of Plano Carpini on Prester John
But he (Genghis) sent his other son with an army against the Indians, who also subdued India Minor. These Indians are the black Saracens, which are also called Ethiopians. But here the army marched forward to fight against Christians dwelling in India Major. Which the king of that country hearing (who is commonly called Presbyter John) gathered his soldiers together, and came forth against them. And making men’s images of copper, he set each of them upon a saddle on horseback, and put fire within them and placed a man with a pair of bellows on the horseback behind every image. And so many horses and images in such sort furnished, they marched to fight against the Mongols or Tartars. And coming near unto the place of the battle, they first of all sent those horses in order one after another. But the men that sat behind laid I wot not what upon the fire within the images, and blew strongly with their bellows. Whereupon it came to pass, that men and horses were burnt with wildfire, and the air was darkened with smoke. Then the Indians cast darts upon the Tartars, of whom many were wounded and slain. And so they expelled them out of their dominions with great confusion, neither did we hear, that they returned thither again.
4. Joinville on the Tartars sections 471-491 found on pages 261-267 in Chronicles of the Crusade translated by Caroline Smith. Published by Penguin in 2008.
Brief Summary: Describes the Mongols as former tributaries of Prester John who eventually killed and overthrew him. First account to mention said defeat.
5. Friar William on Prester John pages 107-109 in The Realm of Prester John by Robert Silverberg Published by Ohio University Press in 1972.
Brief Summary: The Mongols conquer and defeat Vut, brother and successor to Prester John.
6. Marco Polo on the Mongols (Tartars) and Prester John.
Chapter 44
Of the origin of the kingdom of the Tartars--of the quarter from whence they came--and of their former subjection to Un-khan, a prince of the north, called also Prester John.
The circumstances under which these Tartars first began to exercise dominion shall now be related. They dwelt in the northern countries of Jorza and Bargu, but without fixed habitations, that is, without towns or fortified places; where there were extensive plains, good pasture, large rivers, and plenty of water. They had no sovereign of their own, and were tributary to a powerful prince, who (as I have been informed) was named in their language, Un-khan, by some thought to have the same signification as Prester John in ours. To him these Tartars paid yearly the tenth part of the increase of their cattle. In time the tribe multiplied so exceedingly that Un-khan, that is to say, Prester John, becoming apprehensive of their strength, conceived the plan of separating them into different bodies, who should take up their abode in distinct tracts of country. With this view also, whenever the occasion presented itself, such as a rebellion in any of the provinces subject to him, he drafted three or four hundred of these people, to be employed on the service of quelling it, and thus their power was gradually diminished. He likewise despatched them on other expeditions, and sent among them some of his principal officers to see that his intentions were carried into effect. At length the Tartars, becoming sensible of the slavery to which he tried to reduce them, resolved to maintain a strict union amongst themselves, and seeing that he planned nothing short of their final ruin, they adopted the measure of leaving the places they then inhabited, and proceeded north across a wide desert, until they felt assured that the distance afforded them security, when they refused any longer to pay to Un-khan the accustomed tribute.
Chapter 45
Concerning Chingis-khan, first emperor of the Tartars, and his warfare with Un-khan, whom he overthrew, and of whose kingdom he possessed himself.
Sometime after the migration of the Tartars to this place, and about the year of our Lord 1162, they proceeded to elect for their king a man named Chingis-khan, one of approved integrity, great wisdom, commanding eloquence, and eminent for his valor. He began his reign with so much justice and moderation, that he was beloved and revered as their deity rather than their sovereign; and as the fame of his great and good qualities spread over that part of the world, all the Tartars, however dispersed, placed themselves under his command. Finding himself thus at the head of so many brave men, he became ambitious of emerging from the deserts and wildernesses by which he was surrounded, and gave them orders to equip themselves with bows, and other weapons they were expert at using from the habits of their pastoral life. He then made himself master of cities and provinces, and such was the effect produced by his character for justice and other virtues, that wherever he went, he found the people disposed to submit to him, and to esteem themselves happy when admitted to his protection and favor. In this manner he acquired the possession of about nine provinces. Nor is his success surprising, when we consider that at this period each town and district was either governed by the people themselves or had its petty king or lord; and as there was no general confederacy, it was impossible for them to resist, separately, so formidable a power. Upon the subjugation of these places, he appointed governors to them, who were so exemplary in their conduct that the inhabitants did not suffer either in their persons or their properties. He likewise adopted the policy of taking along with him, into other provinces, the principal people, on whom he bestowed allowances and gratuities. Seeing how prosperously his enterprises succeeded, he resolved on attempting still greater things. With this view he sent ambassadors to Prester John, charged with a specious message, which he knew at the same time would not be listened to by that prince, demanding his daughter in marriage. Upon receiving the application, the monarch indignantly exclaimed: "Whence arises this presumption in Chingis-khan, who, knowing himself to be my servant, dares to ask for the hand of my child? Depart instantly," he said, "and let him know from me, that upon the repetition of such a demand, I shall put him to an ignominious death." Enraged at this reply, Chingis-khan collected a very large army, at the head of which he entered the territory of Prester John, and encamping on a great plain called Tenduk, sent a message desiring him to defend himself. The latter advanced likewise to the plain with a vast army, and took his position at the distance of about ten miles from the other. In this conjuncture Chingis-khan commanded his astrologers and magicians to declare to him which of the two armies in the approaching conflict should obtain the victory. Upon this they took a green reed, and dividing it lengthways into two parts, they wrote upon one the name of their master, and upon the other the name of Un-khan. They then placed them on the ground, at some distance from each other, and gave notice to the king that during the time of their pronouncing their incantations, the two pieces of reed, through the power of their idols, would advance towards each other, and that the victory would fall to the lot of that monarch whose piece should be seen to mount upon the other. The whole army was assembled to be spectators of this ceremony, and whilst the astrologers were employed in reading their books of necromancy, they perceived the two pieces begin to move and to approach, and after a short time, the one inscribed with the name of Chingis-khan placed itself on top of its adversary. Upon witnessing this, the king and his band of Tartars marched with exultation to the attack of the army of Un-khan, broke through its ranks and entirely routed it. Un-khan himself was killed, his kingdom fell to the conqueror, and Chingis-khan espoused his daughter. After this battle he continued during six years to render himself master of additional kingdoms and cities; until at length, in the siege of a castle named Thaigin, he was struck by an arrow in the knee, died of the wound, and was buried in the mountain of Altai.
7. . Read pages 141-149 and 162, 167-171 in The Travels of Sir Mandeville, translated by C.S Mosley, published 2005 by Penguin.
Brief Summary: The first part covers the Mongols, while the second part covers Prester John. Prester John has a vast and rich Kingdom with mythical elements. But, he is still secondary to the Mongols in wealth and Power.
8. Read chapters 1-4 in The Realm of Prester John, by Robert Silverberg, published 1972 by Ohio University Press.
9. Read pages 31-40, 136-141 and chapters 1, 3-5 and 7 in Peter Jackson’s The Mongols and the West: 1221-1410. Published by Pearson Educated Limited, 2005.
10. Read pages 4-11, 25-52, 81-92 in Vsevolod Slessarev, Prester John: The Letter and the Legend (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1959)
10. Read Karl F. Helleiner, "Prester John's Letter: A Mediaeval Utopia," Phoenix 13, no. 2 (1959): 49. doi:10.2307/1086970.
12. Read Charles E. Nowell, "The Historical Prester John," Speculum 28, no. 3 (1953): 439-440. doi:10.2307/2847020.
Some important events to keep in mind, while reading examples 8-12.
1141: Yeh-Lu Ta-Shish defeats the Seljuks near Samarkand.
1144: Edessa falls to Zengi.
1145: The first appearance of Prester John in medieval literature.
1147-1149: The Second Crusade ends in failure.
1165: The Byzantine Emperor recieves a letter from someone claiming to be Prester John.
1177: Pope Alexander III sends a letter to Prester John.
1218-1225: Mongolian campaign against Khwarazm.
1221: Members of the fifth crusader hear rumors of Prester John attacking Muslims.
1241-1242: The Mongolian Invasion of Europe.
1245: First Council of Lyon.
1246: John of Plano Carpini attends coronation of Kuyuk as Khan.
1262: The start of Mongolian diplomacy with Catholic Europe.
1322: Mongolian diplomacy with Catholic Europe ends.
Exercises
- Read Otto’s 1145 description of Prester John and the 1165 letter and note what is the same and what is different. What do you make of the consistent images and what do you think is the purpose of the new additions to the Prester John myth in the letter?
- Compare and contrast the description of Prester John by John of Plano Carpini, Friar William and Marco Polo.
- Do you think the evolution of Prester John into a more realistic depiction of an earthly ruler has to do with European perspectives of the Mongols? Tell us why or why that is not the case.
- Do you find the connections historians have made with the actions of the Mongols and the Prester John mythos convincing? Tell us why or why not.
- Why do you think we have the return to the mythical Prester John in Sir Jonathan Murphy’s Travels?
- What purpose does Prester John fulfill to his medieval European audience? Does that purpose change over time?
[1] Vsevolod Slessarev, Prester John: The Letter and the Legend (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1959) 27.
[2] Ibid, 25-26.
[3] Peter Jackson, The Mongols and the West: 1221-1410 (New York: Pearson Educated Limited, 2005) 165.
[4] Charles E. Nowell, "The Historical Prester John," Speculum 28, no. 3 (1953): 439-440. doi:10.2307/2847020. Jackson, The Mongols and the West: 1221-1410, 37-39.
[5] Vsevolod Slessarev, Prester John: The Letter and the Legend, 28-30.
[6] Charles E. Nowell, "The Historical Prester John," 437.
